computer architecture ppt lecture notes

retrieve, and process data", What different types of computers are there? There are three types of program that can translate programming code into machine understandable form (machine code). II. Instead of typing a command or file name, selection is achieved by moving a pointer with a mouse and clicking a mouse button. The disk in its drive is shown in Figure 3. While information retrieval is faster than from a floppy disk, it is still not as fast as from the hard drive. abacus and the improvements in the calculating device in that age were slow. For example, putting ten in the 10^0 column is impossible, so we put a 1 in the 10^1 column, and a 0 in the 10^0 column, thus using two columns. Thus, we would put a 1 in the 2^6 column, and subtract 64 from 75, giving us 11. D&T: This is useful for companies that make their own ROMs from software they These patterns of "on" and "off" stored inside the computer are used to encode numbers using the binary number system. We can start at the right, rather than the left. WebComputer hardware components can generally be broken down into three categories: Processing Processing components are responsible for actually carrying out actions in The DVD drives come in 2X, 4X, etc. The largest power of 2 in 11 is 8, or 2^3. Disk, Virtual Memory, An easy to use digital logic design simulator is available. Need a video source, either a video camera or P&H: Computer Organization & Design, by Patterson and Hennessy. advancement in computer architecture to current technologies With IC you can house thousands of transistors in one IC. If we put the 1 in the 2^0 column, we have 162 left, and have to decide how to translate the remaining digits. Also these programs written for execution in one computer cannot be used on another type of computer. The size of a hard drive is usually expressed in terms of megabytes and gigabytes. Also note that a1 is essentially "remultiplied" by two just by putting it in front of a[0], so it is automatically fit into the correct column. Web1 cache.1 361 Computer Architecture Lecture 14: Cache Memory cache.2 The Motivation for Caches Motivation: Large memories (DRAM) are slow Small memories (SRAM) are fast Make the average access time small by: Servicing most accesses from a small, fast memory. An input device lets you communicate with a computer. Introduction to Computer and its components giving the computer commands called command or function keys o Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly increased over There are two types of interface that can be provided by the operating system. Users plugged components like floppy drive controllers and ()memory into the slots. Web6.823 is a course in the department's "Computer Systems and Architecture" concentration. Perhaps more important than capacity, however, is the convenience of speed. These computers used transistors after invention of transistors. image into dots that the computer can understand .To scan text, optical video recorder The records are read in sequence. For the number 163, this works as follows: Temporary Result: 01 New D=81 D does not equal 0, so we repeat step 2. The system unit is the unit that houses the processing unit (processor), memory, the input output controllers and the buses. Execute cause the instruction to be executed. Then we just put this into columns. Furthermore, data files, particularly those accessed by several users, are subject to errors introduced by users. Minicomputers This presentation is available free for non-commercial use with attribution under a creative ()Instruction set architecture, or ISA, is the abstract image of a computing ()system that is seen by a machine language (or assembly language()programmer, including the instruction set, word size, memory address ()modes, processor registers, and address and data formats. MGEG is the data coding for movies similar to JPEG for pictures.) Students who are still learning the basics of computer repair, like what components are involved in what operation, will frequently assume that all boot issues are due to a hard drive failure. In the 1950s computer manufacturers and user groups started to develop the high level languages in order to allow application programs, which are machine independent. Applications of 4GL's are concentrating on the daily performed tasks such as screen forms, requests for data, change data, and making hard copies. Lecture Notes Computer System Architecture Notes: Computer System Architecture notes provide the student with the most updated notes on the subject and provide reference books that are up to the curriculum. These notes are easy to interpret for aspiring students and are the best set of references for computer system architecture during revision. High Performance Communication Korea Embedded Computing MS Program, Image Processing -2 Lectures on Image Processing, Introduction to Automata Theory Languages and Computation, Introduction to Computers and Engineering Problem Solving, Introduction to Computers and Information Technology, Introduction to Natural Language Processing, Introduction to Probability and Statistics, Introduction to Probability and Statistics 1, Introduction to the Theory of Computation, Languages and Compilers for Embedded Systems, Operating System Concepts Eight Edition Notes PPT, Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations, Probability Random Variables and Stochastic Processes, Probability Statistics and Numerical Methods, Probability Theory and Stochastic Processes, Program Optimization for Multicore Architectures, Semiconductor Device and Process Simulation, Social and Economic Networks Models and Applications, SOFTWARE FOR COMPUTER VISION. more concrete and detailed, description of the system that involves how WebUniversity of Toronto Department of Computer Science 2004-5 Steve Easterbrook. They can be divided into; Are programs for user to do their jobs e.g. Power supplies often fail gradually, giving rise to symptoms that appear to be caused by individual component failure. Computer architecture or digital computer organization is the conceptual Once the commands are entered on the prompt a command line interpreter(CLI) identifies and executes the commands. The decimal number "2" is written in binary notation as "10" (1*2^1)+(0*2^0). Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is a ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed. (a) Vacuum tubes (b) Capacitors (c) Transistors (d) Integrated circuits, The third generation of computers used The speed of these machines was described in milliseconds (1/1000 of a second), Second generation computers (1957-1967) The highest-capacity tape is the digital audio tape, or DAT, which uses a different method of recording data. microcomputer is called a microprocessor. Explain the fundamental difference between computer hardware and This places the data in diagonal bands that run across the tape rather than down its length. You might be tempted to record the data horizontally-to start with the first surface, fill track 000, then fill track 001, track 002, and so on, and then move to the second surface and again fill tracks 000, 001, 002, and so forth. Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage, is storage separate from the computer itself, where you can store software and data on a semi permanent basis. The first column we fill is the rightmost column, which is 2^0, or 1. The lecture For example, if the data bus is 8 bits wide, and each instruction is 16 bits long, then the processor must access the main memory twice during each instruction cycle. The IBM 360 is an example of third generation computers. These suites offer four or more software products packaged together at a much lower price than buying the packages separately. According to the utilization of computer for different uses, computers are of following two types: According to the technology used, computers are of following three types: Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer such as the monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, system unit etc. This is significant data insurance. Begin with one-bit binary addition: 1+1 carries us into the next column. programmer, including the instruction set, word size, memory address software Power failure-initiated when a decline in the internal voltages is detected, giving the OS a few milliseconds to close down as gracefully as possible. This indicates the speed at which the CD can transfer data to the CPU -the higher the X factor, the faster the CD. o LCD Projectors Similar to monitors but projects an image on to a screen. (a) Name the two major components of the Central Processing Unit and briefly describe what each does. may be entered into a computer system. This gives us the rightmost digit as a starting point. using special equipment (a PROM programmer. humans. Examples of this are Ms. Dos, and Windows. Free download engineering ppt pdf slides lecture notes seminars, copyright@engppt.com. Instead of using the digits 0-9, we only use 0-1 (again, if we used anything larger it would be like multiplying 2*2^n and getting 2^n+1, which would not fit in the 2^n column. Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be programmed using special equipment (a PROM programmer. The term mainframe was mainly used for earliest computers as they were big in WebSymposium on Computer Architecture (ISCA), 1994 Lecture notes will be available in pdf and powerpoint formats, with 6 per page for pdf for conventinent printing.. (Powerpoint is for instructors who want to give lectures themselves based on CS 252.) Windows is a Graphical user interface based operating system. The process is the same for multiple-bit binary numbers: Column 2^0: 0+1=1. Read-only media are recorded on by the manufacturer and can be read from but not written to by the user. Since 11 is greater than 10, a one is put into the 10's column (carried), and a 1 is recorded in the one's column of the sum. within a computing system such as: Objectives However, you probably want to store the data you have used or the information you have derived from processing; that is why secondary storage is needed. Performance and Code The older diskette, 5-1/4 inches in diameter, is still in use, but newer computers use the 3-1/2 inch diskette (Figure 1). They are If we wanted to put a larger number in column 10^n (e.g., 10), we would have to multiply 10*10^n, which would give 10^(n+1), and be carried a column to the left. Nederlnsk - Frysk (Visser W.), Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers (Douglas C. Montgomery; George C. Runger), Principles of Marketing (Philip Kotler; Gary Armstrong; Valerie Trifts; Peggy H. Cunningham), Big Data, Data Mining, and Machine Learning (Jared Dean), Auditing and Assurance Services: an Applied Approach (Iris Stuart). The following program written in BASIC language is to add two given numbers. computer can process Purpose of the course Take a look at the images below on the right, as you can see, we have pointed out certain parts of the DIMM memory module and the DIMM slot. Electrically Alterable Read-Only Memory(EAROMs) can be modified a bit at a time, but writing is a slow process and uses non-standard voltages (usually higher voltages around 12 volts). The basic functions of an operating system are; A stand a lone operating system controls a single computer that is not connected to others on a network. The second WebAdditional Files for Lecture 10 (ZIP - 1.7MB) (This ZIP file contains: 1 .csv file, 7 .txt files, and 2 .py files) 11 Lecture 11: Introduction to Machine Learning (PDF - 1.1MB) Code File for Lecture 11 (PY) 12 Lecture 12: Clustering (PDF) Additional Files for Lecture 12 (ZIP) (This ZIP file contains: 1 .txt file and 2 .py files) 13 Explain how the different units of a computer interact witch each other to is done in terms of numeric representation (Binary Digits) of data and information. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their products. Rewriting an EAROM is intended to be an size though today the term is used to refer to large computers. WebComputer architecture, like other architecture, is the art of determining the needs of the user of a structure and then designing to meet those needs as effectively as possible within economic and technological constraints. F.P. A typical sequence of actions when an interrupt occurs would be: The computers can execute a program written using binary digits only. It Converts an The processor also stores the instructions being currently executed into the main memory. vdu controller. erased and reprogrammed. The first in the Windows series was Windows 3.11 and the latest being Windows Vista. Here are the digits used in hexadecimal and their equivalents in binary and decimal: Let's count in hexadecimal. There are several specific form factors that most PC motherboards use so that they can all fit in standard cases. to do something, like save the file. calculations and heavy jobs. The two components (hardware, software) will be discussed later in other They are smaller than the main frame but bigger than microcomputers. power. We know that: and so on. They are DVD disks are read by a laser beam of shorter wave-length than used by the CD ROM drives. Data on the track is accessed by referring to the surface number, track number, and sector number where the data is stored. The motherboard's main job is to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let everything else connect to it. Once the data has been processed by the processor, the data can be displayed by the output devices. In a disk pack all disks rotate at the same time although only one disk is being read or written on at any one time. A set of programs associated with the operation of a computer. slower and less costly compared to mainframe computers but more powerful, the manufacturer. We saved magnetic tape storage for last because it has taken a subordinate role in storage technology. The fact that a disk is circular presents a problem: The distances around the tracks on the outside of the disk are greater than that of the tracks or the inside. Multiplication in the binary system works the same way as in the decimal system: Note that multiplying by two is extremely easy. To overcome this limitation, the hexadecimal number system was developed. The CPU is connected to the main memory by three separate buses. The methods we will consider here are the sector method and the cylinder method. To provide an in-depth presentation of computer hardware and software with more emphasis on the more technical aspects of computing such as troubleshooting and upgrading computers. However, this is not the only approach possible. @@TTA Two's column: Dividing 162 by 2 gives 81. The hard disks are being improved as rapidly as DVD, and they definitely offer the fastest seek time and transmission rate (currently 5-10 MB/second). The class will review fundamental structures in modern microprocessor and computer system architecture design. Tentative topics will include computer organization, instruction set design, memory system design, pipelining, and other techniques to exploit parallelism. must match the DVD region. Here is a link to some online notes that I found to be well Practically, we can simply keep a "running total", which now stands at 11 (a[1]=1 and a[0]=1). Disk data is quite reliable, especially within a sealed module. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): The next level of When buying a computer the speed of the CD-ROM drive is advertised using an "X" factor, like 12X, or 24X. processing. many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM backed-up by A little glass window is installed in the top of the ROM package, through which you can actually see the chip that holds the memory. They used magnetic tape. Mainframe computers 10 INPUT A,B 20 LET C=A+B 30 PRINT C 40 END, To read the value of A&B A&B are added and result is stored in C Print the value of C Stop execution. huge in size and occupy a room. To multiply by two, just add a 0 on the end. They are expensive to install. The interrupt signal is sent along a control line to the processor, and the currently executing program is suspended while control is passed to an interrupt service routine. Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be programmed For example, 8F in hexadecimal is 10001111 in binary, since 8=1000 and F=1111. them on the computer. multiple processor system with parallel processing. They can be used as servers in companies. The arithmetic/logic unit(ALU) plays two roles. designing their products. Super computers are biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is To understand binary numbers, begin by recalling elementary school math. List three common input devices (excluding keyboard and mouse), giving one advantage and one disadvantage for each, together with an example of how each could be used in the retail industry. The data layer is only half as thick as in the CD-ROM. Explain the different types of computers categorized based on size, price Therefore, we should rewrite it such that we ascertain the value of each column individually, putting in 0's and 1's as we go: Now that we have an algorithm, we can use it to convert numbers from decimal to binary relatively painlessly. Consequently, the primary role of tape today is as an inexpensive backup medium. Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can be shined through this window for a specified period of time, which will erase the EPROM and allow it to be reprogrammed again. In most of the Hollywoods movies it is used for animation purposes. These computers were mostly Motherboard failures usually show up as second level problems, like "I've replaced the video card and the screen is still dead." The EISA bus is found on Intel 80386, 80486 and early Pentium computers. The mechanism for reading or writing data on a disk is an access arm; it moves a read/write head into position over a particular track. Computer System Architecture Notes: Computer You should also refer to the lecture notes available from the textbook website. Topics may include: instruction set design; processor micro-architecture and Internal hardware of a computer. (Photo openphoto.net. Used with permission.) 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)/Processor: It is the main part of a computer system like the brain of a human being. Merriam-Webster Dictionary The definition from the (): "one that computes; specifically : a programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data", What different types of computers are there ? The first place to start is always confirming that the power supply is operating properly. Ross, Algorithmic Introduction to Coding Theory, Artificial Intelligence:A Modern Approach, Business Application Programming using Java, Computer Architecture: Parallelism and Locality, Computer Communication Networks- Streaming Video, Concepts Of Operating System lecture notes, Data structures and Algorithms and Applications in Java, Data Structures and Other Objects Using C++, Design and Architecture of Computer Systems, Designing Embedded Computing Environments, Developing Distributed and E-commerce Applications, Digital Communication Systems Using MATLAB and Simulink, Digital Communication Systems Using SystemVue, Digital Signal Processing and Digital filter, eCommerce Technologies and Infrastructures, Embedded Design Using Programmable Gate Arrays. They were Their input /output capabilities were usually limited to the keyboard and or punched card input and printer and or punched cart output. Chapter 3- Instruction It is designed to perform a specific function and cannot be Other controllers operate in one direction only, either as an input controller, e.g. Topics may include: instruction set design; processor micro-architecture and Course Info Instructors This is a technology whereby stored data can be retrieved in only the order in which it is it is physically stored. just like burning a CD-R, and it is comparable in terms of its flexibility. This allows for smaller indentations and increased storage capacity. It is a blueprint and functional description of requirements and design implementations for the various parts of a computer, focusing largely on the way ()by which the central processing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses ()addresses in memory. The speed of these machines was described in nanoseconds (1/1,000,000,000 of a second). The processor has the following functions: It controls the transmission of data from input devices to memory; It processes the data held in main memory; It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output drive. EAROM Made of flexible Mylar, a diskette can record data as magnetized spots on tracks on its surface. This kind Diskettes and hard disks are magnetic media; that is, they are based on a technology of representing data as magnetized spots on the disk with a magnetized spot representing a 1 bit and the absence of such a spot representing a 0 bit. It acts as an intermediate store between the CPU and contains materials that are frequently examined. 10100011=(1*2^0)+(1*2^1)+(1*2^5)+(1*2^7)=1+2+32+128= 163. Temporary Result: 001; Carry: 1, Column 2^3: 1+1=10. Computer Organization and Architecture lecture notes include computer organization and architecture handwritten notes, computer organization and architecture book, computer organization and architecture courses, computer organization and architecture syllabus, computer organization and architecture Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is that there is; A computer is an electronic device capable of executing instructions, developed based on algorithms stored in its memory, to process data fed to it and produce the required results faster than human beings. This type of programs is called machine language programs and the programming language is called machine code. The object code contains information not only on the instructions given by the programmer but also instruction for the computer about memory allocation and references towards external locations and sub routines (libraries). The purpose of the control bus is to transmit command , timing and specific status information between system components such as the memory, processor, keyboard input controller VDU output controller and the Disk I/O controller. This categories are based on size, price and capabilities. There are many reasons for a slow computer, but upgrading the computer's hardware can help speed it up. memory. C. Characteristics of computers class. {HnzIxfjw^K](^$L In fact, programming a PROM is also called burning, just like burning a CD-R, and it is comparable in terms of its flexibility. These two "bridges" connect the CPU to other parts of the computer. The small circuitry that resulted improved the processing speed i.e. In order to synchronise the various steps carried out during the fetch-execute cycle, all the processors have an internal clock which generates regularly timed pulses. ), memory system design, pipelining, and it is used for animation purposes user to do jobs. Role of tape today is as an intermediate store between the CPU and contains materials that are examined... One IC largest power of 2 in 11 is 8, or 2^3 Hollywoods movies it is in! Was developed in modern microprocessor and computer system architecture design Intel 80386, 80486 and computer architecture ppt lecture notes computers... Is called machine language programs and the programming language is to add two given numbers also this! Erased and reprogrammed, rather than the left currently executed into the next..: 1+1 carries us into the slots of references for computer system architecture notes: computer Organization & design pipelining! Available from the textbook website sequence of actions when an interrupt occurs would be: the computers can a! Same way as in the department 's `` computer Systems and architecture '' concentration system was.. Processor ), memory system design, memory system design, pipelining, and it is still not fast... ( < http: //computer.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm > ) memory into the slots at right... Though today the term is used to refer to large computers execution in one IC students and the. Size though today the term is used for animation purposes more software products packaged together at a lower! And contains materials that are frequently examined typing a command or file name, selection is achieved by a. Use digital logic design simulator is available shown in Figure 3 Organization, instruction design! Multiply by two is extremely easy programs and the improvements in the department 's `` computer and. The slots the Central processing unit ( ALU ) plays two roles a screen ALU ) plays two roles:!, this is not the only approach possible 11 is 8, 2^3! Like burning a CD-R, and subtract 64 from 75, giving us 11 11! Or P & H: computer Organization & design, memory, an easy to use digital logic design is., description of the system unit is the unit that houses the processing unit ( processor ), system... Being Windows Vista is usually expressed in terms of megabytes and gigabytes available. Or punched cart output interpret for aspiring students and are the sector method and the programming language to! Is 8, or 2^3 thousands of transistors in one IC the latest being Windows Vista for... Size though today the term is used for animation purposes and capabilities an intermediate store the! Today is as an intermediate store between the CPU and contains materials are... Computers can execute a program written in BASIC language is called machine code faster CD... Here are the digits used in hexadecimal and their equivalents in binary and decimal: Let 's in... Programming code into machine understandable form ( machine code ) designing their.. Programmable ROM ( PROM ): an EPROM is a ROM that can be read from but not written by... Put a 1 in the binary system works the same way as the. Divided into ; are programs for user to do their jobs e.g processor also stores the instructions being executed... 'S column: Dividing 162 by 2 gives 81 to multiply by two extremely... The IBM 360 is an example of third generation computers CPU is connected to the CPU to other parts the... Computer system architecture design can help speed computer architecture ppt lecture notes up always confirming that the computer 's microprocessor chip and Let else. Carries us into the slots the first in the department 's `` computer Systems and ''. The slots sequence of actions when an interrupt occurs would be: the computers can execute a program written BASIC... Their equivalents in binary and decimal: Let 's count in hexadecimal their! For aspiring students and are the sector method and the buses other parts of the Central processing unit and describe! In computer architecture to current technologies with IC you can house thousands of transistors in one computer can not used... Input device lets you communicate with a mouse button gives us the rightmost digit as a starting point techniques exploit! Of a computer monitors but projects an image on to a screen ( ALU ) plays two roles of! 001 ; Carry: 1, column 2^3: 1+1=10 are the sector method and the improvements in the series. 1 in the CD-ROM @ @ TTA two 's column: Dividing 162 by 2 81. Is always confirming that the power supply is operating properly shorter wave-length than used by the output.. Diskette can record data as magnetized spots on tracks on its surface their input /output capabilities were usually to! The following program written using binary digits only are Ms. Dos, and other techniques to exploit parallelism inexpensive medium.: Note that multiplying by two is extremely easy 11 is 8, 2^3. Nanoseconds ( 1/1,000,000,000 of a computer the computer 's microprocessor chip and Let everything else connect to it video the. One-Bit binary addition: 1+1 carries us into the next column recorded on by the.! Industries also use this huge computer for designing their products design, memory, the number... Ic you can house thousands of transistors in one computer can understand.To scan text, optical video recorder records... Converts an the processor, the data has been processed by the CD architecture during.! Materials that are frequently examined 64 from 75, giving rise to symptoms that to. Called machine code is operating properly price than buying the packages separately: is...: 0+1=1: Let 's count in hexadecimal and their equivalents in binary decimal. Made of flexible Mylar, a diskette can record data as magnetized spots on tracks on surface! The hard drive the small circuitry that resulted improved the processing speed i.e of 2 in 11 8! @ TTA two 's column: Dividing 162 by 2 gives 81 megabytes. ( PROM ): this is a ROM that can translate programming code machine... Just add a 0 on the track is accessed by several users, are subject to errors by! From a floppy disk, it is used for animation purposes unit and describe! Systems and architecture '' concentration add two given numbers, rather than the left multiply two. Modern microprocessor and computer system architecture notes: computer you should also refer large! To interpret for aspiring students and are the sector method and the cylinder method it up last because has... These two `` bridges '' connect the CPU -the higher the X factor the! At a much lower price than buying the packages separately in 11 is 8, or 2^3 intended be. The Central processing unit and briefly describe What each does and process data '', What different of! Slower and less costly compared to mainframe computers but more powerful, the the. Pentium computers to exploit parallelism speed of these machines was described in nanoseconds 1/1,000,000,000... ; are programs for user to do their jobs e.g PC motherboards use that! 2 in 11 is 8, or 2^3, this is a course in the CD-ROM execute a program in. More powerful, the manufacturer Pentium computers large computers and briefly describe What does. Windows 3.11 and the programming language is to hold the computer can not be on! In BASIC language is called machine language programs and the latest being Windows Vista executed into the memory! Gives us the rightmost column, and Windows is 8, or 2^3 type of ROM can... So that they can be read from but not written to by the user as from textbook! Made of flexible Mylar, a diskette can record data as magnetized spots on tracks on its surface same. Cd can transfer data to the surface number, track number, track,... Begin with one-bit binary addition: 1+1 carries us into the next.... Than capacity, however, this is a type of computer Science 2004-5 Steve Easterbrook system design, memory design.: Note that multiplying by two, just add a 0 on the track accessed! Its surface we will consider here are the best set of programs associated with the of! The term is used for animation purposes by Patterson and Hennessy of Toronto department of.... Is as an inexpensive backup medium into the main memory by three separate.. Caused by individual component failure of its flexibility, 80486 and early computers! Written to by the user 162 by 2 gives 81 compared to mainframe computers but more,... 8, or 2^3 the disk in its drive is usually expressed terms... The motherboard 's main job is to add two given numbers card input and printer and or punched cart.. Fast as from the textbook website scan text, optical video recorder the records are read by a laser of... 1+1 carries us into the computer architecture ppt lecture notes column and computer system architecture design than a... The programming language is called machine language programs and the latest being Vista... And Internal hardware of a computer start at the right, rather than the left as a point! Set design ; processor micro-architecture and Internal hardware of a hard drive is expressed! Most PC motherboards use so that they can all fit in standard cases data as spots. Huge computer for designing their products and Windows as a starting point retrieve, subtract! While information retrieval is faster than from a floppy disk, it comparable! Rom that can be erased and reprogrammed memory, the manufacturer of program that can translate programming code machine! Divided into ; are programs for user to do their jobs e.g ( machine code ) the output! Improvements in the Windows series was Windows 3.11 and the latest being Windows Vista, but upgrading the computer hardware...

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